* Channeling: There are two main techniques mediumship developed in the latter half of the 20th century. One type involves psychics or sensitives who can speak to spirits and then relay what they hear to their clients. The other form of non-physical mediumship is called channeling, in which the channeler goes into a trance, or "leaves their body" and then becomes “possessed” by a specific spirit, who then talks through them. In the trance, the medium enters a cataleptic state marked by extreme rigidity. The control spirit then takes over, the voice may change completely and the spirit answers the questions of those in its presence or giving spiritual knowledge. The most successful and widely known channeler of this variety is JZ Knight, who claims to channel the spirit of Ramtha, a 30 thousand year old man. Others claim to channel spirits from "future dimensional", ascended masters or in the case of the trance mediums of the Brahma Kumaris, God himself. Channeling is popularly parodied in the "Doonesbury" cartoon where a ditzy female character is occasionally taken over by "Hunk-Ra," an assertive 21,000-year-old warrior based on Ramtha. Other notable channels are Jane Roberts for Seth
* Channelers Claim: To have channeled ascended masters like Buddha, Jesus, or St. Germain; people who have died; angels; higher dimensional beings; and extra-terrestrials of a spiritual or more evolved nature; and God. Channeling is a popular source of revealed teachings in some New Age groups. Well known channelers like Diandra (Salem), Esther Hicks (Abraham), David Reid Lowell (Michel), Jane Roberts (Seth), Linda Dillon (13 masters and archangels), and Lee Carroll (Kryon) have volumes of teachings on angels, chakras, higher dimensions, future predictions, manifestation, meditation, non-judgment, now moment, past lives, and spirituality.
* Trance: As a class term, is a categoric auspice or rubric, employed to denote a variety of processes, techniques, modalities and states of mind, awareness and consciousness. Trance states may be consciously and intentionally induced, or they may occur involuntarily and unbidden. The term "trance" may be conflated with others such as meditation, play, magic, flow and prayer. It may also be conflated with the earlier generic term, altered states of consciousness, which, due to the value judgement that is embedded within the adjective "altered", is no longer used in "Consciousness Studies" discourse. Trance is increasingly used as a meta-paradigm and inclusive term for different states of consciousness and what has come to be known as altered states of consciousness. No value judgement on the states is intended. The trance as meta-paradigm model has been developing through the confluence of various fields and disciplines since the 1970s.
* Trance Conditions: Include all the different states of mind, emotions, moods and daydreams that human beings experience. All activities which engage a human involve the filtering of information coming into sense modalities and hence, brain functioning and consciousness. Therefore, trance may be understood as a matter of functionality and efficiency to economize consciousness resource usage. Trance states may also be accessed or induced by various modalities and is a way of accessing the unconscious mind for the purposes of relaxation, healing, intuition and inspiration. There is an extensive documented history of trance as evidenced by the case-studies of anthropologists and ethnologists and associated and derivative disciplines. Hence trance, may be perceived as endemic to the human condition and a Human Universal.
* Trance Mediumship: Is often seen as a form of mental mediumship. Some mediums remain conscious during this communication period, while others go into a trance, wherein a spirit uses the medium's body to communicate. Trance mediumship is defined as a spirit taking over the body of the medium, sometimes to such a degree that the medium is unconscious. Part trance mediums are aware during the period of communication, while full trance mediums pass into an unconscious state in which their physical and mental processes are completely controlled by the spirit communicator. In the 1860s and 1870s, trance mediums were among the most popular of lecturer-entertainers. Spiritualism had attracted adherents who had strong interests in social justice, and many trance mediums delivered passionate speeches on abolitionism, temperence, and women's suffrage.
* Working Definitions for Trance: * Enchantment: a psychological state induced by (or as if induced by) a Magical Incantation * a state of mind in which consciousness is fragile and voluntary action is poor or missing * a state resembling deep sleep * Capture: attract; cause to be enamored; "She captured all the men's hearts"; in the sense of entranced * a condition of apparent sleep or unconsciousness, with marked physiological characteristics, in which the body of the subject is liable to possession * an out-of-body experience in which one feels they have passed out of the body into another state of being, a rapture, an ecstasy. In a general way, the entranced conditions thus defined are divided into varying degrees of a negative, unconscious state, and into progressive gradations of a positive, conscious, illumining condition. * a state of hyper or enhanced suggestibility. * an induced or spontaneous sleep-like condition of an altered state of consciousness, which permits the subject's physical body to be utilized by the discarnate as a means of expression * an altered state of awareness induced via hypnotism in which unconscious or dissociated responses to suggestion are enhanced in quality and increased in degree * a state induced by the use of hypnosis; the person accepts the suggestions of the hypnotist * a state of consciousness characterized by extreme dissociation often to the point of appearing unconscious.
* Principles of Trance: Are being explored and documented as are methods of trance induction. Benefits of trance states are being explored by medical and scientific inquiry. Many traditions and rituals employ trance. Trance also has a function in religion and mystical experience. Castillo (1995) states that: Trance phenomena result from the behavior of intense focusing of attention, which is the key psychological mechanism of trance induction. Adaptive responses, including institutionalized forms of trance, are 'tuned' into neural networks in the brain and depend to a large extent on the characteristics of culture. Culture-specific organizations exist in the structure of individual neurons and in the organizational formation of neural networks." Hoffman states that: "Trance is still conventionally defined as a state of reduced consciousness, or a somnolent state. However, the more recent anthropological definition, linking it to 'altered states of consciousness' (Charles Tart), is becoming increasingly accepted. Hoffman asserts that: the trance state should be discussed in the plural, because there is more than one altered state of consciousness significantly different from everyday consciousness.
* Because the typical trance medium: has no clear memory of the messages conveyed while in a trance, a medium of this type generally works with an assistant who writes down or otherwise records his or her words. A good example of this kind of relationship can be found in the early 20th century collaboration between the trance medium Mrs. Cecil M. Cook of the William T. Stead Memorial Center in Chicago (a religious body incorporated under the statutes of the State of Illinois) and the journalist Lloyd Kenyon Jones, a non-mediumistic Spiritualist who transcribed Cook's messages in shorthand and then edited them for publication in book and pamphlet form.
* Some people respond passionately to the usage of the term Trance. Trance has a parallel history of negative associations and connotations. This article seeks to embrace these differences and engage them as a mutually rewarding dialogue, rather than contrive a homogenous position. Brian Inglis (1989) provides an interesting literature review and overview of the absence and oversight of 'trance' in reference materials.
* Some Christians believe that Mediumship: Is specifically forbidden in the Bible: They can cite biblical verses to support their position. Criticism of mediumship also comes from skeptics and atheists, who dispute the existence of spirits or of genuine mediums. Skeptics say the phenomena of mediumship are the result of self-delusion, unconscious influence, or of magician's techniques such as cold reading, hot reading, and conjuring.
* Hoffman writes: "Over the past few decades, less of a value judgement has been made regarding whether these states are deeper or lighter or better or worse than ordinary consciousness. This means that usual, everyday consciousness no longer unequivocally ranks first, as it had for so long in the West. Hoffman writes further that as the anthropologists and ethnologists (for example Felicitas Goodman) tell us, there are no traditional rituals or ceremonies that truly work and change our reality without the use of trance.
* Wier, in his 1995 book, "Trance: From magic to technology", defines a simple trance as being caused by cognitive loops which always result in various sets of disabled cognitive functions. With this simple definition, Wier defines meditation, hypnosis, addiction and charisma as complex forms of the simple definition. In Wier's 2007 book, "The Way of Trance," he elaborates on these forms, adds ecstacy as an additional form and discusses the ethical implications of his model, including magic.
* Definitions of Spirit Possession: channelling and mediumship within the Brazilian 'cultos' is recognised to correspond with what appears to be the majority view as described by ethnographers of spirit possession worldwide. There are a number of descriptions available concerning what happens when someone becomes possessed. Practises brought over by African slaves from West Africa, Mixed with indigenous South American tradition to develop their own flavour. During the suppression of Culto Omoloco or Umbanda by the Roman Catholic Church a period of syncretism commenced that included the introduction of images of the saints present in the churches presenting a new look for repressors behind which the Africans worshipped their gods and ancestors. This process of merger continued with the introduction of Kardecist spiritism and includes spiritualists.
* Vision: Is visual perception via the visual system; one of the senses. # Vision (religion), inspirational renderings believed to come from a deity. In religion, visions comprise inspirational renderings, generally of a future state and/or of a mythical being, and are believed (by followers of the religion) to come from a deity, directly or indirectly via prophets, and serve to inspire or prod believers as part of a revelation or an epiphany. Many mystics take the word vision to be synonymous with apparition. For religious visions as a literary form, see apocalyptic literature. Religious visions are generally categorized as miracles. Like speaking in tongues and unlike raising the dead, visions can be readily forged.
* In the Eastern Orthodox Church: In addition to the religious visions mentioned above, the term vision (theoria) can refer to the experience of the "Energies" of God, as the result of the purified nous.
* Artistic Inspiration: May provide a special category of the ecstatic vision: traditionally in such cases the semi-divine Muses may transmit the visioning to their loyal followers. Visions generally have more clarity than dreams, but traditionally fewer psychological connotations. The psychological mechanism to engender visionary perception and trance phenomena is focussed intention and attention. Entheogens (such as peyote) have traditionally assisted in the generation of visions among diverse cultures, as well as in modern western culture. Some could consider visions to be a manifestation of the 'aha' (lightbulb going off) type of learning associated with Picture thinking or Visual Spatial thinking.
* A Marian Apparition: Is an event in which the Virgin Mary is believed to have supernaturally appeared to one or more persons, typically Catholics, although not always devout or always Catholic or Christian, in various settings. They are often given names based on the town in which they were reported, or on the sobriquet which was given to Mary on the occasion of the apparition. They have been interpreted as psychological (pareidolia), and as religious phenomena, occasionally as theophanies. Apparitions sometimes recur at the same site over an extended period of time. In the majority of Marian apparitions only a few people can see Mary. An exception to this is at Zeitoun, where thousands claimed to have seen her over a period of three years.
* By experiencing these Vision is visual perception via the visual system: One of the senses., the medium generally claims to allow communication between non-mediumistic people and spirits who may have messages to share. A medium may claim to: listen to and relate conversations with spirit voices; go into a trance and speak without knowledge of what is being said; allow a spirit to enter his or her body and speak through it; or relay messages from the spirits those who wish to contact them with the help of a physical tool, such as a writing pad.
* Mystical Doctrines may reference religious texts that are non-canonical: As well as more mainstream canon (Christian example of the former, Dark Night of the Soul, and the latter Book of Revelation), and generally require a more committed intellectual, psychological and physical approach from spiritual devotees. Most mystical teachers typically have some history or connection with a mainstream religious branch controversial or otherwise, but gather followers through reinterpreting sacred texts or developing new spiritual approaches from their own unique experience. The existence of ESP abilities is highly controversial, and no scientifically conclusive demonstrations of the existence of ESP have been given. Parapsychology explores this possibility, and some experiments such as the ganzfeld have been suggested as good evidence of ESP, however its existence is not generally accepted by the scientific establishment.
* Psychic: In popular culture the word Psychic (pronounced from the Greek psychikos "of the soul, mental"): Refers to the ability to perceive things hidden from the senses through means of extra-sensory perception. The term also refers to theatrical performers who use techniques such as prestidigitation and cold reading to produce the appearance of having such abilities. Parapsychologists attempt to study what some believe are psychic phenomena using a variety of methods such as random number generators to test for psychokinesis or the Ganzfeld experiment to test for extra-sensory perception. Early examples of individuals thought by some to have psychic powers include the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi who was thought to provide prophecies from Apollo himself as well as Nostradamus, a French apothecary who is thought by some to have had the ability to predict the future. During the 19th century belief in psychics became more common and many notable individuals gained notoriety including Daniel Dunglas Home. Psychics are also very popular in science fiction today and many works of fiction include individuals with psychic abilities, including The Dead Zone by Stephen King. Today, belief in psychic phenomena is widespread amongst the general public. A 2005 Gallup poll concluded that 41% of Americans believe in extra-sensory perception.
* Early examples: Of individuals thought by some to have psychic powers include the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi who was thought to provide prophecies from Apollo himself as well as Nostradamus, a French apothecary who is thought by some to have had the ability to predict the future. During the 19th century belief in psychics became more common and many notable individuals gained notoriety including Daniel Dunglas Home. Psychics are also very popular in science fiction today and many works of fiction include individuals with psychic abilities, including The Dead Zone by Stephen King as well as Jean Grey from the Marvel comic book universe. Today, belief in psychic phenomena is widespread amongst the general public. A 2005 Gallup poll concluded that 41% of Americans believe in extra-sensory perception.
* The existence of extra sensory psychic (ESP)Abilities is disputed by skeptics who contend that there is no scientific evidence supporting such abilities and apparent psychic phenomena are nothing more than intentional trickery or self delusion. Debunker James Randi has offered a $1 million prize to any individual who can, under controlled circumstances, demonstrate any paranormal or supernatural ability. As of yet, no aspirants have passed his preliminary tests.
* French astronomer and spiritualist Camille Flammarion: Is credited as having first used the word psychic, while it was later introduced to the English language by Edward William Cox in the 1870s. Some credit William Crookes, an English chemist and physicist, as having first used the term in describing medium and magician Daniel Dunglas Home.
* Extrasensory Perception (ESP): Is the purported ability to acquire information by paranormal means independent of any known physical senses or deduction from previous experience. The term was coined by Duke University researcher J. B. Rhine to denote psychic abilities such as telepathy, the sensing of thoughts or feelings without help from the 5 known senses, precognition, the knowledge of future events, and clairvoyance, the awareness of people, objects or events without the help of the 5 known senses. ESP is also sometimes casually referred to as a sixth sense, gut instinct, a hunch, a weird vibe or an intuition. The term implies sources of information currently unexplained by science. Popular belief in ESP is widespread, but skeptics are still not persuaded that there truly is a sixth sense because of the lack of reliable theories and information.
* Aegeus: A mythical king of Athens, consults the Pythia, who sits on a tripod. Elaborate systems of Divination and Fortune Telling date back to ancient times. Perhaps the most widely-known system of early civilization fortune-telling was astrology, where practitioners believed the relative positions of celestial bodies could lend insight into people's lives and even predict their future circumstances. Some fortune-tellers were said to be able to make predictions without the use of these elaborate systems (or in conjunction with them), through some sort of direct apprehension or vision of the future. These people were known as seers or prophets, and in later times as clairvoyants and psychics.
* Seers: Formed a functionary role in early civilization, often serving as advisors, priests, and judges. A number of examples are included in biblical accounts. The book of 1 Samuel (Chapter 9) illustrates one such functionary task when Samuel is asked to locate the donkeys of the future King Saul. The role of prophet appeared perennially in ancient cultures. In Egypt, the priests of Ra at Memphis acted as seers.
* In ancient Assyria seers were referred: to as Nabu, meaning "to call" or "announce". The Delphic Oracle is one of the earliest stories in classical antiquity of psychic abilities. The Pythia, the priestess presiding over the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi, was believed to be able to deliver prophecies inspired by Apollo during rituals beginning in the 8th century BC. It is often said that the Pythia delivered oracles in a frenzied state induced by vapors rising from the ground, and that she spoke gibberish, believed to be the voice of Apollo, which priests reshaped into the enigmatic prophecies preserved in Greek literature. Other scholars believe records from the time indicate that the Pythia spoke intelligibly, and gave prophecies in her own voice.
* The Pythia: Was a position served by a succession of women probably selected from amongst a guild of priestesses of the temple. The last recorded response was given in 393 AD, when the emperor Theodosius I ordered pagan temples to cease operation. Recent geological investigations raise the possibility that ethylene gas caused the Pythia's state of inspiration. One of the most enduring historical references to what some consider to be psychic ability is the prophecies of Michel de Nostredame (1503 – 1566), often Latinized to Nostradamus, published during the French Renaissance period. Nostradamus, was a French apothecary and seer who wrote collections of prophecies that have since become famous world wide and have rarely been out of print since his death. He is best known for his book Les Propheties, the first edition of which appeared in 1555. Taken together, his written works are known to have contained at least 6,338 quatrains or prophecies, as well as at least eleven annual calendars. Most of the quatrains deal with disasters, such as plagues, earthquakes, wars, floods, invasions, murders, droughts, and battles all undated.
* Nostradamus: Is a controversial figure. His many enthusiasts, as well as the popular press, credit him with predicting numerous major world events. Interest in his work is still considerable, especially in the media and in popular culture. By contrast, most academic scholars maintain that the associations made between world events and Nostradamus' quatrains are largely the result of misinterpretations or mistranslations (sometimes deliberate) or else are so tenuous as to render them useless as evidence of any genuine predictive power. In addition to the belief that some historical figures were endowed with a predisposition to psychic experiences, some psychic abilities were thought to be available to everyone on occasion. For example, the belief in prophetic dreams was common and persistent in many ancient cultures.
* Nostradamus: One of the most enduring historical references to what some consider to be psychic ability is the prophecies of Michel de Nostredame (1503 – 1566), often Latinized to Nostradamus, published during the French Renaissance period. Nostradamus, was a French apothecary and seer who wrote collections of prophecies that have since become famous world-wide and have rarely been out of print since his death. He is best known for his book Les Propheties, the first edition of which appeared in 1555. Taken together, his written works are known to have contained at least 6,338 quatrains or prophecies, as well as at least eleven annual calendars. Most of the quatrains deal with disasters, such as plagues, earthquakes, wars, floods, invasions, murders, droughts, and battles all undated. Nostradamus is a controversial figure. His many enthusiasts, as well as the popular press, credit him with predicting numerous major world events. Interest in his work is still considerable, especially in the media and in popular culture. By contrast, most academic scholars maintain that the associations made between world events and Nostradamus' quatrains are largely the result of misinterpretations or mistranslations (sometimes deliberate) or else are so tenuous as to render them useless as evidence of any genuine predictive power. In addition to the belief that some historical figures were endowed with a predisposition to psychic experiences, some psychic abilities were thought to be available to everyone on occasion. For example, the belief in prophetic dreams was common and persistent in many ancient cultures.
* Telepathy: From the Greek, tele meaning "distant" and patheia meaning "to be affected by", describes the purported transfer of information on thoughts or feelings between individuals by means other than the five classical senses (See Psi). The term was coined in 1882 by the classical scholar Fredric W. H. Myers, a founder of the Society for Psychical Research, specifically to replace the earlier expression thought-transference. A person who is able to make use of telepathy is said to be able to read the minds of others. Telepathy, along with psychokinesis forms the main branches of parapsychological research, and many studies seeking to detect and understand telepathy have been done within the field. Telepathy is a common theme in fiction and science fiction, with many superheroes and supervillains having telepathic abilities. Such abilities include both sensing the thoughts of others, and controlling the minds of other people. Transhumanists believe that technologically enabled telepathy, called "techlepathy", will be the inevitable future of humanity, and seek to develop practical, safe devices for directly connecting human nervous systems.
* In Britain: The Society for Psychical Research has investigated some phenomena, mainly in connection with telepathy and apparitions. According to an article in the Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, in some cases mediums have produced personal information which has been well above guessing rates. The VERITAS Research Program of the Laboratory for Advances in Consciousness and Health in the Department of Psychology at the University of Arizona, run by Gary Schwartz, was created primarily to test the hypothesis that the consciousness (or identity) of a person survives physical death. Studies conducted by VERITAS have been approved by the University of Arizona Human Subjects Protection Program and an academic advisory board. Some Christians believe that mediumship is specifically forbidden in the Bible, and they can cite biblical verses to support their position. Criticism of mediumship also comes from skeptics and atheists, who dispute the existence of spirits or of genuine mediums. Skeptics say the phenomena of mediumship are the result of self-delusion, unconscious influence, or of magician's techniques such as cold reading, hot reading, and conjuring.
* Parapsychology: Participant of a Ganzfeld Experiment which proponents say may show evidence of telepathy.
* Psychical research is largely conducted in the field of parapsychology: Parapsychological research uses a variety of qualitative and quantitative methodologies in an attempt to find evidence for psychic ability. The experimental methods of parapsychologists include the use of random number generators to test for psychokinesis, mild sensory deprivation in the Ganzfeld experiment to test for (ESP), and research trials conducted under contract by the U.S. government to investigate remote viewing. The statistical methods of parapsychologists have generated a number of meta-analytical studies, which combine the data from several previous experiments into one large data set. Although all of the research methods of parapsychology have contributed to the field, the experimental and statistical methods have attracted much attention and debate.
* Sleight of hand: Also known as 'prestidigitation' ("quick fingers") or léger de main (from the French for "lightness of hand"), is the set of techniques used by a magician (or card sharp) to manipulate objects such as cards and coins secretly. Sleight of hand is not a separate branch of magic, but rather one of the means used by a magician to produce an effect. It can be contrasted with the flourish, where the magician intentionally displays skills, such as the ability to cut cards one handed, which is akin to juggling. Advanced sleight of hand requires months or years of practice before it can be performed proficiently in front of spectators. Sleight of hand is mostly employed in close-up magic, but it can also be used in stage magic. There are hundreds of different sleights at the performer's disposal, but they can generally be classified into groups: switches, changes, etc. There are several stories about magicians using sleight of hand in real life, such as the one about American illusionist David Copperfield using sleight-of-hand to fool a mugger into thinking he had no wallet in his pockets.
* Isolation Tank: An isolation tank is a lightless, soundproof tank in which subjects float in salty water at skin temperature. They were first used by John C. Lilly in 1954 in order to test the effects of sensory deprivation. Such tanks are now also used for meditation, prayer, relaxation, and in alternative medicine. Isolation tanks were originally called sensory deprivation tanks. They were renamed because it was found that the terminology of "sensory deprivation" negatively prejudiced people prior to experiencing the use of the device. Dr. Peter Suedfeld and Dr. Roderick Borrie of the University of British Columbia began experimenting on the therapeutic benefits of this technique in the late 1970s. They renamed the technique Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy (REST) or Flotation REST. A therapeutic session in a flotation tank typically lasts an hour. For the first forty minutes it is reportedly possible to experience itching in various parts of the body (a phenomenon also reported to be common during the early stages of meditation). The last 20 minutes often end with a transition from beta or alpha brainwaves to theta, which typically occur briefly before sleep and again at waking. In a float tank the theta state can last for several minutes without the subject losing consciousness. Many use the extended theta state as a tool for enhanced creativity and problem-solving or for superlearning. Spas sometimes provide commercial float tanks for use in relaxation. Flotation therapy has been academically studied in the USA and in Sweden with published results showing reduction of both pain and stress. The relaxed state also involves lowered blood pressure and maximal blood flow.
* The five sensory deprivation techniques: The five techniques of wall-standing; hooding; subjection to noise; deprivation of sleep; deprivation of food and drink were used by the security forces in Northern Ireland in the early 1970s. After the Parker Report of 1972 these techniques were formally abandoned by the United Kingdom as aids to the interrogation of paramilitary suspects.
* Sensory Deprivation: Is the deliberate reduction or removal of stimuli from one or more of the senses. Simple devices such as blindfolds or hoods and earmuffs can cut off sight and hearing respectively, while more complex devices can also cut off the sense of smell, touch, taste, thermoception (heat-sense), and 'gravity'. Sensory deprivation has been used in various alternative medicines and in psychological experiments (e.g., see Isolation tank), and for torture or punishment. Though short periods of sensory deprivation can be relaxing, extended deprivation can result in extreme anxiety, hallucinations, bizarre thoughts, depression, and antisocial behavior.
* The Irish Government on behalf: of the men who had been subject to the five methods took a case to the European Commission on Human Rights (Ireland v. United Kingdom, 1976 Y.B. Eur. Conv. on Hum. Rts. 512, 748, 788-94 (European Commission of Human Rights)). The Commission stated that it "considered the combined use of the five methods to amount to torture". This consideration was overturned on appeal. In 1978 in the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) trial "Ireland v. the United Kingdom" ruled that the five techniques "did not occasion suffering of the particular intensity and cruelty implied by the word torture [but] amounted to a practice of inhuman and degrading treatment", in breach of the European Convention on Human Rights.
* It is on record in the ECHR judgment that: These methods, sometimes termed "disorientation" or "sensory deprivation" techniques, were not used in any cases other than the fourteen so indicated above. It emerges from the Commission's establishment of the facts that the techniques consisted of:
(a) wall-standing: forcing the detainees to remain for periods of some hours in a "stress position", described by those who underwent it as being "spreadeagled against the wall, with their fingers put high above the head against the wall, the legs spread apart and the feet back, causing them to stand on their toes with the weight of the body mainly on the fingers"; (b) hooding: putting a black or navy colored bag over the detainees' heads and, at least initially, keeping it there all the time except during interrogation; (c) subjection to noise: pending their interrogations, holding the detainees in a room where there was a continuous loud and hissing noise; (d) deprivation of sleep: pending their interrogations, depriving the detainees of sleep (e) deprivation of food and drink: subjecting the detainees to a reduced diet during their stay at the center and pending interrogations.
* The phrase "mind's eye": Refers to the human ability for visual perception, imagination, visualization, and memory, or, in other words, one's ability to "see" things with the mind. South American spiritualistic traditions
Self-described Fortune tellers, psychics and mediums are often accused of using the technique.
* First is the awakening, the stage in which one begins to have some consciousness of absolute or divine reality. * The second stage is one of purgation which is characterized by an awareness of one's own imperfections and finiteness. The response in this stage is one of self-discipline and mortification. * The third stage, illumination, is one reached by artists and visionaries as well as being the final stage of some mystics. It is marked by a consciousness of a transcendent order and a vision of a new heaven and a new earth. The great mystics go beyond the stage of illumination to a * fourth stage which Underhill, borrowing the language of St. John of the Cross, calls the dark night of the soul. This stage, experienced by the few, is one of final and complete purification and is marked by confusion, helplessness, stagnation of the will, and a sense of the withdrawal of God's presence. It is the period of final "unselfing" and the surrender to the hidden purposes of the divine will. * The final and last stage is one of union with the object of love, the one Reality, God. Here the self has been permanently established on a transcendental level and liberated for a new purpose. Filled up with the Divine Will, it immerses itself in the temporal order, the world of appearances in order to incarnate the eternal in time, to become the mediator between humanity and eternity. * Psychic detective * Scrying * Mediumship * Magic (paranormal) * Mentalist
* Mystic: * Mystics: A person who practices Mysticism, or a reference to a mystery a mystic knows or studies. As the mystical experience of mystics generally entails direct connection, communication and communion with Deity, Godhead, deity and or God; trance and cognate experience are endemic. Refer: Yoga, Sufism, Shaman, Umbanda, Crazy Horse, etc. Mystics hold that there is a deeper, more fundamental state of existence hidden beneath the appearances of day to day living (which may become, to the mystic, superficial or epiphenomenal). Unity is both the internal and external focus as one seeks the truth about oneself, one's relationship to others and reality (both the world at large and the unseen realm). The mystic's motivation for such an arduous endeavor appears to be unique to the individual and culture, and sometimes a new religion, order or sect may be the legacy. Generally approached through the purification processes of prayer, meditation, contemplation (communion with Reality) and a wide variety of other means, the mystic seeks to transcend any constraint to his direct experience of the Divine.
* The Authentic Mystic's Ultimate Goal: Is a sustained stable state of full consciousness, wholeness/holiness through self-knowledge. First, the observer role (Seer, Watcher) must be stabilized before he/she can return to being, merge with the preexistent field the Divine, allowing him to fulfill his purpose or realize his passion. With that in mind, the word mysticism, is best used to point to conscious and systematic attempts to gain transcendent insights/experiences through studies and practice. Possible techniques include meditation, contemplation (of causality), prayer, asceticism (fasting from the world), devotions, Dhikr, Sama, the chanting of mantras or holy names, communion with entheogens, and intellectual investigation. Mystics typically go beyond specific religious perspectives or dogmas in their teachings, espousing an inclusive and universal perspective that rises above traditional sectarian differences because they comprehend the shared basis of other religious traditions beneath the superficial. (see interdenominationalism, interfaith, and perennial philosophy).
* Ambiguities of Meaning: The mystic interprets the world through a different lens than is present in ordinary experience, which can prove to be a significant obstacle to those who research mystical teachings and paths. Much like poetry, the words of mystics are often idiosyncratic and esoteric, can seem confusing and opaque, simultaneously over-simplified and full of subtle meanings hidden from the unenlightened. To the mystic, however, they are pragmatic statements, without subtext or weight; simple obvious truths of experience. One of the more famous lines from the Tao Te Ching, for instance, reads: My words are very easy to know, and very easy to practice; but there is no one in the world who is able to know and able to practice them. References to "the world" are common in mystical and religious traditions including admonitions to be separate and the call to detachment which is analogous to emptiness.
* The processes experiences undertaken to: Achieve unity are described variously as the path, Theosis, Faqr (Sufism), Makhafah Mahabbah Ma'rifah (fear love knowledge, Sufism Egypt), Fana (Sufism Arab and Persian), Enlightenment, The Way, Transcendence, the Fourth Way (G. I. Gurdjieff), salvation through the Christ self, Satori (Zen Buddhism), Dhyana or Bhakti (Hinduism), Wu-Wei (Taoism), etc. In Tantra, Taoist Yoga, (Inner Alchemy) and Western Mystery Traditions derived from Gnosticism, a further stage of Unity beyond that achieved through individual Mysticism is known, the reuniting of the two halves of the human species through [Sacred Union] the Secret Gate to Eden' by Samael Aun Weor). Every culture develops traditions and myths pointing the way to the Transcendent Heroic Self; the process may be embodied in Visual Symbolism (Hindu "Shiva" Christian "Stations of the Cross") or detailed psychologically in powerful stories such as Theseus and Odysseus, etc.
* Mysticism (from the Greek Mystikos): "Seeing with the Eyes Closed": an initiate of the Eleusinian Mysteries; mysteria meaning "initiation" is the pursuit of achieving communion, identity with, or conscious awareness of ultimate reality, divinity, spiritual truth, or God through direct experience, intuition, or insight. Traditions may include a belief in the literal existence of dimensional realities beyond empirical perception, or a belief that a true human perception of the world goes beyond current logical reasoning or intellectual comprehension. A person delving in these areas may be called a Mystic. The term "Mysticism" is often used to refer to beliefs which go beyond the purely exoteric practices of mainstream religions, while still being related to or based in a mainstream religious doctrine.
* Mysticism is usually understood in a religious context: But as William James and Ken Wilber point out, transcendent experiences may happen to anyone, regardless of religious training or inclinations:. Such experiences can occur unbidden and without preparation at any time, and might not be understood as religious experiences at all. A momentary unity may be experienced by the artist or athlete as a perceived interconnection with existence or a loss of self accompanied by feelings of euphoria, by the scientist as a spontaneous ecstatic inspiration, by an ordinary individual as a shift in physical reality after experiencing a temporary unconflicted state of mind, by a prophet as an open channel of knowledge or even dismissed as psychological disturbances in modern times.
* For example: * Kabbalah is a significant mystical movement within Judaism, and * Sufism is a significant mystical movement within Islam. * Gnosticism refers to various mystical sects of classical late antiquity that were influenced by Platonism, Judaism and Christianity. Some have argued that Christianity itself was a mystical sect that arose out of Judaism. Non-traditional knowledge and ritual are considered as Esotericism, for example Buddhism's Vajrayana. Vedanta, the Naths (North India), the Natha (South India), Siddhar, Nagas are considered the several mystical branches of Hinduism. Hinduism, being an ancient religion and a rather broad 'all-paths' embracing philosophy, has many mystical branches. Mystical doctrines may reference religious texts that are non-canonical, as well as more mainstream canon (Christian example of the former, Dark Night of the Soul, and the latter Book of Revelation), and generally require a more committed intellectual, psychological and physical approach from spiritual devotees. Most mystical teachers typically have some history or connection with a mainstream religious branch controversial or otherwise, but gather followers through reinterpreting sacred texts or developing new spiritual approaches from their own unique experience.
* The Mystical Perspective: Author and mystic, Evelyn Underhill outlines the Universal Mystic Way, the actual process by which the mystic arrives at union with the absolute. She identifies five stages of this process:
* The Divine Realm: Has been expressed in any of various ways across cultures as * God * Allah * Brahma * Creator * Baqa (Sufism), the perfect goodness, ultimate reality, hal (Persian sufism), a universal presence, force or divine principle. The ultimate unification with the divine may be experienced by the mystic as psychological emancipation, samadhi, being born again, wahdat al-wujud(Sufism) or unity consciousness, but in practical terms it can be described as a surrendered egoless state in which the external world synchronizes with the mystic's true nature and purpose. The term, heaven/nirvana, while generally considered an after-death experience in Islam, Judaism, Christianity, Hinduism and Buddhism is understood by the mystic as a non-physical realm or "field" with physical effects in the eternal "now." Severe cultural alienation often accompanies this effort as the mystic turns away from the world (fasting/emptying) seeking reunion with the Creator or Godhead within.
* James points out that: A mystical experience displays the world through a different lens than ordinary experience. The experience, in his words, is "ineffable" and "noetic"; placed beyond the descriptive abilities of language. While there is debate over what this implies, and whether the experience actually transcends the phenomenal or material world of ordinary perception, or rather transcends the capacities of ordinary perception to bring the phenomenal and material world into full view, it should be remembered that a complete absence of terminology related to modern psychology, biology and physics existed during the evolution of mankind's sacred texts and earliest attempts to communicate the unity experience. Ancient religious and mystical language may become more accessible with modern terminology and understanding in future translations and interpretations. However, mystics generally focus on the experience itself, and rarely concern themselves with ontological discussions assuming that the initiate understands, or will grasp the semantics as they progress. One example of the opposite can be found in Meister Eckhart, the 14th century Christian mystic, who was brought before the Inquisition for heresy because his interpretation of Christ's teachings as psychological metaphors linking mind with the Real were considered dangerous to laymen. A contemporary explanation of mystical phenomenon has been presented by Joseph Chilton Pearce in "The Biology of Transcendence; A Blueprint of the Human Spirit."
* Author and mystic, Evelyn Underhill outlines the universal mystic way: The actual process by which the mystic arrives at union with the absolute. She identifies five stages of this process. First is the awakening, the stage in which one begins to have some consciousness of absolute or divine reality. The second stage is one of purgation which is characterized by an awareness of one's own imperfections and finiteness. The response in this stage is one of self-discipline and mortification. The third stage, illumination, is one reached by artists and visionaries as well as being the final stage of some mystics. It is marked by a consciousness of a transcendent order and a vision of a new heaven and a new earth. The great mystics go beyond the stage of illumination to a fourth stage which Underhill, borrowing the language of St. John of the Cross, calls the dark night of the soul. This stage, experienced by the few, is one of final and complete purification and is marked by confusion, helplessness, stagnation of the will, and a sense of the withdrawal of God's presence. It is the period of final "unselfing" and the surrender to the hidden purposes of the divine will. The final and last stage is one of union with the object of love, the one Reality, God. Here the self has been permanently established on a transcendental level and liberated for a new purpose. Filled up with the Divine Will, it immerses itself in the temporal order, the world of appearances in order to incarnate the eternal in time, to become the mediator between humanity and eternity.
* The Delphic Oracle: Is one of the earliest stories in classical antiquity of psychic abilities. The Pythia, the priestess presiding over the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi, was believed to be able to deliver prophecies inspired by Apollo during rituals beginning in the 8th century BC. It is often said that the Pythia delivered oracles in a frenzied state induced by vapors rising from the ground, and that she spoke gibberish, believed to be the voice of Apollo, which priests reshaped into the enigmatic prophecies preserved in Greek literature. Other scholars believe records from the time indicate that the Pythia spoke intelligibly, and gave prophecies in her own voice. The Pythia was a position served by a succession of women probably selected from amongst a guild of priestesses of the temple. The last recorded response was given in 393 AD, when the emperor Theodosius I ordered pagan temples to cease operation. Recent geological investigations raise the possibility that ethylene gas caused the Pythia's state of inspiration.
* Stimulus: Is a detectable change in the internal or external environment. When a stimulus is will accommodate to a particular stimulus. A stimulus is part of the stimulus-response relationship of behavioural learning theory. A stimulus is a detectable change in the internal or external environment. When a stimulus is applied to a sensory receptor, it elicits or influences a reflex via stimulus transduction. A stimulus is often the first component of a homeostatic control system. When a sensory nerve and a motor nerve communicate with each other, it is called a nerve stimulus. Any of your five senses will accommodate to a particular stimulus. In Simple words we can define the stimulus as "a function which generates some action" (haha wow that was soooo added:))
* Parapsychology (from the Greek: para, "alongside" + psychology): Is the study of ostensibly paranormal events including extra-sensory perception, psychokinesis, and survival of consciousness after death. Parapsychologists call these processes psi, a term intended to be descriptive without implying a mechanism. Parapsychology is a fringe science because it involves research that does not fit within standard theoretical models accepted by mainstream science. Parapsychological research involves a variety of methodologies including laboratory research and fieldwork, which is conducted at privately funded laboratories and some universities around the world though there are fewer universities actively sponsoring parapsychological research today than in years past. Such research is published in specialized parapsychological publications, though a smaller number of articles on parapsychological research have also appeared in more mainstream journals. Experiments conducted by parapsychologists have included the use of random number generators to test for evidence of psychokinesis, sensory-deprivation Ganzfeld experiments to test for extra-sensory perception, and research trials conducted under contract to the United States government to investigate the possibility of remote viewing.
* Scientists such as: Ray Hyman, Stanley Krippner, and James Alcock, among others, are critical of both the methodology used and the results obtained in parapsychology. Skeptical researchers suggest that methodological flaws provide the best explanation for apparent experimental successes, rather than the anomalistic explanations offered by many parapsychologists. To date, no evidence has been accepted by the scientific community as establishing the existence of paranormal phenomena. Active parapsychologists have admitted difficulty in getting scientists to accept their research[3], and science educators at the California State Board of Education have called the subject pseudoscience in their academic standards literature.
* Rhine era: In 1911, Stanford University became the first academic institution in the United States to study extra-sensory perception (ESP) and psychokinesis (PK) in a laboratory setting. The effort was headed by psychologist John Edgar Coover. In 1930, Duke University became the second major U.S. academic institution to engage in the critical study of ESP and psychokinesis in the laboratory. Under the guidance of psychologist William McDougall, and with the help of others in the department—including psychologists Karl Zener, Joseph B. Rhine, and Louisa E.
* Rhine—laboratory ESP experiments: Using volunteer subjects from the undergraduate student body began. As opposed to the approaches of psychical research, which generally sought qualitative evidence for paranormal phenomena, the experiments at Duke University proffered a quantitative, statistical approach using cards and dice. As a consequence of the ESP experiments at Duke, standard laboratory procedures for the testing of ESP developed and came to be adopted by interested researchers throughout the world. The publication of J.B. Rhine's book, New Frontiers of the Mind (1937) brought the laboratory's findings to the general public. In his book, Rhine popularized the word "parapsychology," which psychologist Max Dessoir had coined over 40 years earlier, to describe the research conducted at Duke. Rhine also founded an autonomous Parapsychology Laboratory within Duke and started the Journal of Parapsychology, which he co-edited with McDougall.
* Near death experiences: Ascent of the Blessed by Hieronymus Bosch (after 1490) depicts a tunnel of light and spiritual figures similar to those reported by near-death experiencers.
* A near-death experience (NDE) Is an experience reported by a person who nearly died, or who experienced clinical death and then revived. NDEs include one or more of the following experiences: a sense of being dead; an out-of-body experience; a sensation of floating above one's body and seeing the surrounding area; a sense of overwhelming love and peace; a sensation of moving upwards through a tunnel or narrow passageway; meeting deceased relatives or spiritual figures; encountering a being of light, or a light; experiencing a life review; reaching a border or boundary; and a feeling of being returned to the body, often accompanied by reluctance. Interest in the NDE was originally spurred by the research of psychiatrists Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, George Ritchie, and Raymond Moody Jr. In 1998, Moody was appointed chair in "consciousness studies" at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. The International Association for Near-death Studies (IANDS) was founded in 1978 to meet the needs of early researchers and experiencers within this field of research. Later researchers, such as psychiatrist Bruce Greyson, psychologist Kenneth Ring, and cardiologist Michael Sabom, introduced the study of near-death experiences to the academic setting.
* Anomalous psychology: A number of studies conducted in the American, European, and Australasian continents have found that a majority of people surveyed report having had experiences that could be interpreted as telepathy, precognition, and similar phenomena. Variables that have been associated with reports of psi-phenomena include belief in the reality of psi; the tendency to have hypnotic, dissociative, and other alterations of consciousness; and, less reliably so, neuroticism, extraversion, and openness to experience. Although psi-related experiences can occur in the context of such psychopathologies as schizotypal personality, dissociative, and other disorders, most individuals who endorse a belief in psi are well-adjusted, lack serious pathology, and are not intellectually deficient or lacking critical abilities.
* Elaborate systems of divination and fortune-telling date back to ancient times: Perhaps the most widely-known system of early civilization fortune-telling was astrology, where practitioners believed the relative positions of celestial bodies could lend insight into people's lives and even predict their future circumstances. Some fortune-tellers were said to be able to make predictions without the use of these elaborate systems (or in conjunction with them), through some sort of direct apprehension or vision of the future. These people were known as seers or prophets, and in later times as clairvoyants and psychics. Seers formed a functionary role in early civilization, often serving as advisors, priests, and judges. A number of examples are included in biblical accounts. The book of 1 Samuel (Chapter 9) illustrates one such functionary task when Samuel is asked to locate the donkeys of the future king Saul. The role of prophet appeared perennially in ancient cultures. In Egypt, the priests of Ra at Memphis acted as seers. In ancient Assyria seers were referred to as nabu, meaning "to call" or "announce".
* This article is about divination as a whole. For the numerous varieties of divination, see Methods of divination. This man in Rhumsiki, Cameroon, tells the future by interpreting the changes in position of various objects as caused by a fresh-water crab through nggam.
* Divination (Greek, from "seer", anglicized in the suffix mancy, see also mania): Is the attempt of ascertaining information by interpretation of omens or an alleged supernatural agency, either by or on behalf of a querent. If a distinction is to be made between divination and fortune-telling, divination has a formal or ritual and often social character, usually in a religious context; while fortune-telling is a more everyday practice for personal purposes. Divination is often dismissed by skeptics, including the scientific community, as being mere superstition: in the 2nd century, Lucian devoted a witty essay to the career of a charlatan, Alexander the false prophet, trained by "one of those who advertise enchantments, miraculous incantations, charms for your love-affairs, visitations for your enemies, disclosures of buried treasure, and successions to estates" though most Romans believed in dreams and charms.
* Psychologist Julian Jaynes categorized divination according to the following four types:
* Omens and omen texts. "The most primitive, clumsy, but enduring method. is the simple recording of sequences of unusual or important events." (1976:236) Chinese history offers scrupulously documented occurrences of strange births, the tracking of natural phenomena, and other data. Chinese governmental planning relied on this method of forecasting for long-range strategy. It is not unreasonable to assume that modern scientific inquiry began with this kind of divination; Joseph Needham's work considered this very idea. * Sortilege (cleromancy). This consists of the casting of lots whether with sticks, stones, bones, beans, or some other item. Modern playing cards and board games developed from this type of divination. * Augury. Divination that ranks a set of given possibilities. It can be qualitative (such as shapes, proximities, etc.): for example, dowsing (a form of rhabdomancy) developed from this type of divination. The Romans in classical times used Etruscan methods of augury such as hepatoscopy (actually a form of extispicy). Haruspices examined the livers of sacrificed animals. * Spontaneous. An unconstrained form of divination, free from any particular medium, and actually a generalization of all types of divination. The answer comes from whatever object the diviner happens to see or hear. Some Christians and members of other religions use a form of bibliomancy: they ask a question, riffle the pages of their holy book, and take as their answer the first passage their eyes light upon. The Bible itself expresses mixed opinions on divination; see e.g. Cleromancy. Other forms of spontaneous divination include reading auras and New Age methods of Feng Shui such as "intuitive" and Fuzion. Common methods of divination: * astrology: by celestial bodies. * augury: by the flight of birds. * bibliomancy: by books (frequently, but not always, religious texts). * cartomancy: by cards. * cheiromancy/palmistry: by palms. * cybermancy: by computers. * gastromancy: by crystal ball. * extispicy: by the entrails of animals. * feng Shui: by earthen harmony. * I Ching divination: by the I Ching; a form of bibliomancy. * numerology: by numbers. * oneiromancy: by dreams. * onomancy: by names. * Ouija: board divination. * rhabdomancy: divination by rods * runecasting/Runic divination: by runes. * scrying: by reflective objects. * taromancy: by Tarot; a form of cartomancy. * necromancy: by the dead, or spirits/souls of the dead/recently dead
* One key to enigmatic expressions: lies in the perspective that "the world" of appearances reflects only learned beliefs - based on the limitations of time, culture and relationships - and that unquestioned faith in those misperceptions limits one's return to the divine state. The cloaking of such insights to the uninitiated is an age-old tradition; the malleableness of reality was thought to pose a significant danger to those harboring impurities. Readers frequently encounter seemingly open-ended statements among studies of mysticism throughout its history. In his work, Kabbalah, Gershom Scholem, a prominent 20th century scholar of that field, stated: The Kabbalah is not a single system with basic principles which can be explained in a simple and straightforward fashion, but consists rather of a multiplicity of different approaches, widely separated from one another and sometimes completely contradictory.
* The purpose of Mysticism and Mystical disciplines such as Meditation: Is to reach a state of return or re-integration with the Godhead. A common theme in mysticism is that the mystic and all of reality are One. The purpose of mystical practices is to achieve that oneness in experience, to achieve a larger identity and re-identify with the all that is. The state of oneness has many names depending on the mystical system: Illumination, * Union (Christianity) * Irfan (Islam) * Nirvana (Buddhism) * Moksha (Jainism)* Samadhi (Hinduism), to name a few. Unio Mystica is a term meaning 'Mystical Union' describing the concept common to all mystical traditions * Kabbalah * Sufism * Vedanta * Esoteric Christianity etc that of the union of the individual human soul with the Godhead.
* John Horgan in Rational Mysticism (2003) Explores the neurological mechanisms and psychological implications of trances and other mystical manifestations. Horgan en corporates literature and case-studies from a number of disciplines in this work: chemistry, physics, psychology, radiology and theology.
* An Oracle: Is a person or agency considered to be a source of wise counsel or prophetic opinion; an infallible authority, usually spiritual in nature. It may also be a revealed prediction or precognition of the future, from deities, that is spoken through another object (e.g.: Runemal) or life-form (e.g.: Augury and Auspice). In the ancient world many sites gained a reputation for the dispensing of Oracular Wisdom: they too became known as "oracles", and the oracular utterances, called Khresmoi in Greek, were often referred to under the same name a name derived from the Latin verb 0rare, to speak. Oracles were common in many civilizations of antiquity.
* In China: The use of oracle bones dates as far back as the Shang Dynasty, (1600 BC - 1046 BC). The I Ching, or "Book of Changes", is a collection of linear signs used as oracles that dates from that period. Although divination with the I Ching is thought to have originated prior to the Shang Dynasty, it was not until King Wu of Zhou (1046 BC-1043 BC) that it took its present form. In addition to its oracular power, the I Ching has had a major influence on the philosophy, literature and statecraft of China from the time of the Zhou Dynasty (1122 BC - 256 BC). The earliest tradition of oracular practice in Hellenic culture is from the archaic period shortly after arrival of the Hellenes in their current place of settlement c.1300 BC. The oracle was associated with the cults of deities derived from the great goddess of nature and fertility, the pre-eminent ancient oracle the Delphic Oracle operated at the temple of Delphi.
* The earliest known oracle was in the renowned temple at Per-Wadjet: This was an important site in the Predynastic era of Ancient Egypt, which includes the cultural developments of ten thousand years from the Paleolithic to 3100 BC The temple was dedicated to the worship of Wadjet and may have been the source for the oracular tradition that spread to Ancient Greece from Egypt. The Per-Wadjet tradition continued through the entire history of the Ancient Egyptian culture. The later Greeks called both the goddess and the city Buto. Another oracle of note lay in Egypt during the Eighteenth dynasty (1550-1292 BC), in a temple dedicated to Amun, a god who rose to importance during that time. The Greeks associated him with Zeus. Alexander the Great once visited it, and although no record of his query remains, the oracle is thought to have hailed him as Ammon's son, influencing his conceptions of his own divinity.
* The temple was changed to: A center for the worship of Apollo during the classical period of Greece and priests were added to the temple organization although the tradition regarding prophecy remained unchanged and the apparently always-female priestess continued to provide the services of the oracle exclusively. It is from this institution that the English word, oracle, is derived. The Delphic Oracle exerted considerable influence throughout Hellenic culture. The Greeks consulted her prior to all major undertakings, wars, the founding of colonies, and so forth. The semi-Hellenic countries around the Greece world, such as Lydia, Caria, and even Egypt also respected her and came to Delphi as supplicants. Croesus of Lydia consulted Delphi before attacking Persia, and according to Herodotus was told, "If you cross the river, you will destroy a great empire." Believing the response favorable, Croesus attacked, but it was his own empire that ultimately was destroyed by the Persians.
* She allegedly also proclaimed Socrates to be the wisest man in Greece: To which Socrates said that, if so, this was because he alone was aware of his own ignorance. After this confrontation, he believed it his duty to share his knowledge by teaching Greece's youth. This Oracle's last recorded response was given in 393 AD, when the emperor Theodosius I ordered pagan temples to cease operation. Dodona another oracle devoted to the Mother Goddess identified at other sites with Rhea or Gaia, but here called Dione. The shrine of Dodona was the oldest Hellenic oracle, according to the fifth-century historian Herodotus and, in fact, dates to pre-Hellenic times, perhaps as early as the second millennium BC when the tradition spread from Egypt. It became the second most important oracle in ancient Greece, which later was dedicated to Zeus and to Heracles during the classical period of Greece. During the period, on Crete lay another important oracle, sacred to Apollo. It ranked as one of the most accurate oracles in Greece.
* The relation of mystical thought: to philosophy, psychology, biology and physics To an extent, mysticism and the modern sciences appear antithetical. Mysticism is generally considered experiential and holistic, and mystical experiences held to be beyond expression; modern philosophy, psychology, biology and physics being overtly analytical, verbal, and reductionist. However, through much of history mystical and philosophical thought were closely entwined. Plato and Pythagoras, and to a lesser extent Socrates, had clear mystical elements in their teachings; many of the great Christian mystics were also prominent philosophers, and certainly Buddha's Sutras and Shankara's 'Crest Jewel of Discrimination' (fundamental texts in Buddhism and Advaitan Hinduism, respectively) display highly analytical treatments of mystical ideas. Baruch de Spinoza, the 17th c. philosopher, while supporting the new discoveries of science and eschewing traditional Jewish concepts of God and miracles, espoused that Nature Universe was one holistic reality with the highest virtue the power inherent in preserving essence (being) or "conatus," and the highest form of knowledge the intuitive knowing of the Real.
* These shared understandings: occur again and again in the field of philosophy and yet some persist in disparaging the one over the other. The pursuit of knowledge in the realm of physics has been accepted for much of history as inseparable from understanding the mind of God - including the 20th c. comment by Albert Einstein that "God does not play dice," referring to the unfathomable discoveries of quantum physics. The rift between mysticism and the modern sciences derives mainly from elements of scientism in the latter: certain branches of the natural sciences, broadly disavow subjective experience as meaningless, misunderstanding the limitations of the ancient languages. That said, several areas of study in biology (work of Mae Wan Ho and Lynn Margulis are two examples) and philosophy address the same issues that concern the mystic, and modern physicists now struggle to understand a multiple dimensional reality that mystics' have attempted to describe for millennia. Physicist David Bohm speaking of consciousness expressing itself as matter and or energy would be completely understood by the mystic, whatever his cultural religious heritage.
* Furthermore: Continental philosophy tends to be concerned with issues closely related to mysticism, such as the subjective experience of existence in Existentialism. It should be noted that while existentialism suggests a nothingness rather than a oneness, the mystic's pursuit of emptiness despite its fear producing angst for the sake of union with the Divine, points directly toward a potential unity between physics and psychology that does not at present exist. The mystic's attempt to describe cause and effect between one's internal state and the miraculous, hints at a close connection between psychological stability (ego transcendence) and the mysterious realm of causality quantum physicists are now deciphering - dimensional reality shifts that synchronize with states of consciousness and unconflicted choices.
* Prophecy: Is the divine gift of speaking the truth, especially about the future. One who speaks prophecy is called a prophet.
* Stimulation: Is the action of various agents (stimuli) on muscles, nerves, or a sensory end organ, by which activity is evoked;especially, the nervous impulse produced by various agents on nerves, or a sensory end organ, by which the part connected with the nerve is thrown into a state of activity. The word is also often used metaphorically. For example, an interesting or fun activity can be described as "stimulating," regardless of its physical effects on nerves. It is also used in simulation technology to describe a synthetically-produced signal that triggers (stimulates) real equipment, see below.
* Stimulation in general refers to how organisms perceive incoming stimuli: As such it is part of the stimulus-response mechanism. Simple organisms broadly react in three ways to stimulation: too little stimulation causes them to stagnate, too much to die from stress or inability to adapt, and a medium amount causes them to adapt and grow as they overcome it. Similar categories or effect are noted with psychological stress with people. Thus, stimulation may be described as how external events provoke a response by an individual in the attempt to cope. Use in Simulators and Simulation Technology Stimulation describes a type of simulation whereby artificially-generated signals are fed to real equipment in order to Stimulate it to produce the result required for training, maintenance or for R&D. The real equipment can be radar, sonics, instruments and so on. In some cases the Stimulation equipment can be carried in the real platform or carriage vehicle (that is the Ship, AFV or Aircraft) and be used for so-called `embedded training' during its operation, by the generation of simulated scenarios which can be dealt with in a realistic manner by use of the normal controls and displays. In the overall definition of simulation, the alternative method is called `emulation' which is the simulation of equipment by entirely artificial means by physical and software modelling.
* Over-stimulation: Psychologically, it is possible to become habituated to a degree of stimulation, and then find it uncomfortable to have significantly more or less. Thus one can become used to an intense life, or television, and suffer withdrawal when they are removed, from lack of stimulation, and it is possible to also be unhappy and stressed due to additional abnormal stimulation.
* It is hypothesized and commonly believed: by some that psychological habituation to a high level of stimul.
* Temple of Epidaurus: Healing Sleep:
According to Hoffman pilgrims visited the Temple of Epidaurus an asclepieion in Greece for healing sleep. A seeker of healing would make pilgrimage and be received by a priest who would welcome and bless them. This temple housed an ancient religious ritual promoting dreams in the seeker that endeavoured to promote healing and the solutions to problems, as did the oracles. This temple was built in honour of Asclepios, the Greek God of Medicine. The Greek treatment was referred to as incubation, and focused on prayers to Asclepios for healing. The asclepion at Epidaurus is both extensive and well preserved, and is traditionally regarded as the birthplace of Asclepius. For a comparable modern tool refer dreamwork.
* Ontology, Epistemology, and Phenomenology: While the three philosophical fields the nature of reality, knowledge and phenomenon would appear to all relate to aspects of mystical experience, they have not as yet been correlated in a systematic way.
* Traditional use of the term ontology: Makes it a synonym of metaphysics. Prior to Immanuel Kant's theoretical separation of "reality" from the "appearance of reality," with human knowledge limited to the latter, the field of ontology/metaphysics concerned itself with the overall structure or nature of reality. Afterword, philosophical and mystical approaches were seemingly separated in a permanent way. 'The general focus on experience in mysticism tends to belie ontological questions.
* Mystical Ontology: Is rarely stated in clear affirmative particulars. Often, it consists of generalized, transcendent identity statements "Atman is Brahman", "God is Love", "There is only One without a Second" or other phrases suggestive of immanence. Sometimes it is stated in negative terms, from the Hindu tradition for instance, the word Brahman is usually defined as God 'without' characteristics or attributes. Buddhist teachings explicitly discourage ontological beliefs, Taoist philosophy consistently reminds that ontos is knowable but inexpressible, and certain 'psychological' schools spiritual schools following after Carl Jung, and philosophical schools derived from Husserl concern themselves more with the transformation of perceptions within consciousness than the connection between transformed consciousness and the external Real. Mysticism is related to epistemology to the extent that both are concerned with the nature, acquisition and limitations of knowledge.
* However: Where epistemology struggles with foundational issues how do we know that our knowledge is true or our beliefs justified mystics often appear more concerned with process as the means to true knowing. However, every mystical path has necessarily as its ontological purpose, the discernment between truth and illusion, and many approaches emphasize the total discarding of beliefs as the prerequisite to knowledge in the phenomenological sense. Foundational questions are generally answered, in mystical thought, by mystical experiences. Their focus, less on finding procedures of reason that will establish clear relations between ontos and episteme, but rather on finding practices that will yield clear perception. The goals therefore are the same, but the mystic's awareness of evolving levels of consciousness encompass another realm altogether.
* At least one branch of epistemology: Claims that non-rational procedures (e.g. statements of desire, random selection, or intuitive processes) are in some cases acceptable means of arriving at beliefs, while the mystic's goal is discarding said beliefs as a limit to knowledge. The term "mysticism" is also used in a pejorative sense in epistemology to refer to beliefs that cannot be justified empirically, and thus considered irrational.
* According to Schopenhauer: Mystics arrive at a condition in which there is no knowing subject and known object:
* From the Latin 'spiritus': The animating principle of humans or of supposed non-physical beings. The earliest recorded use of the word is 1796 and it was used by the prominent C18 th spiritualist Emanuel Swedenborg. The term “spiritualism” has come to have different meanings. A broad working definition of the term would include; the multi-faceted belief in a vital principle within living beings, a supernatural, divine, incorporeal being–force, spirit–animas animating bodies etc. Adherents of spiritualistic movements believe that the spirits of the dead survive mortal life, or sentient beings from "spiritual worlds", can and do communicate with the living. Since ancient times, this has been an element in traditional indigenous religions. In today’s world, it is a growing phenomenon manifesting itself in traditional indigenous religiosity on all continents through non-aligned spiritualistic groups and many syncretistic movements and within elements of orthodox religions by whom it is still seen as a challenge. The word also takes on specific alternative meanings in various differing fields of academia, see below.
* Spiritualism: Attempts to communicate with the dead and other spirits have been documented back to early human history. One of the most well-known is the story Witch of Endor, who was said to have raised the spirit of the deceased prophet Samuel to allow the Hebrew king Saul to question his former mentor about an upcoming battle, as related in the First Book of Samuel in the Jewish Tanakh. Mediumship became quite popular in the United States after the rise of Spiritualism as a religious movement. Modern Spiritualism is said to date to the mediumistic activities of the Fox sisters in New York state 1848. The trance mediums Paschal Beverly Randolph and Emma Hardinge Britten were among the most celebrated lecturers and authors on the subject in the mid 1800s. Mediumship was also described by Allan Kardec, who coined the term Spiritism, around 1860. After the exposure of the fraudulent use of stage magic tricks by physical mediums such as the Davenport Brothers, mediumship fell into disrepute, although it never ceased being used by people who believed that the dead can be contacted. From the 1930s through the 1990s, as psysical mediumship became less practiced in Spiritualist churches, the technique of channelling gained in popularity, and books by channellers who related the wisdom of non-corporeal and non-terrestrial teacher-spirits became best-sellers amongst believers.
* Spiritualism: Is a term commonly used for various psychic or paranormal practices and beliefs recorded throughout humanity's history and in a variety of cultures. Specifically capitalized, the word is used in a narrow sense to describe a religious movement that started in the 19th Century and known as "Modern Spiritualism" or "Modern American Spiritualism. Spiritualistic traditions appear deeply rooted in shamanism and, as such, are perhaps the oldest forms of religion. Mediumship is a modern form of shamanism and such ideas are very much like those developed by Edward Burnett Tylor in his theory of “animism”, where there are other worlds parallel to our own, though invisible to us and not accessible to us in our state. The connecting link between these worlds is the psychic. A person endowed with exceptional sensitivity to the occult dimension, who experiences visions and revelations. Only a few individuals are said to have this capacity.
* Spiritualism is used in English to mean either: * 1) (Religion) - the belief that people can and do communicate with dead people and the practices and doctrines of people with this belief. Main article: Spiritualism (religious movement) * 2) (Philosophy) - In a philosophical doctrine or religious beliefs emphasising that spirits and souls exist or that all reality is spiritual, not material. * 3) (Metaphysics) - various doctrines maintaining that the ultimate reality is spirit or mind. Main article: Metaphysics * 4) (Ethics)- the view that spiritual concerns are more important than this-worldly concerns (a kind of idealism or asceticism that is opposed to secularism). Main article: Ethics * 5) (Epistemology) - another term for mysticism. Main article: mysticism * 6) (Art) - "Abstract Spiritualism", a term coined by Gerard Tempest, friend of the renowned surrealist Giorgio de Chirico in the 1950s to describe his “landscapes of the mind’s eye.” A recurring theme begun in 1953 and continuing throughout the 1990s.
* Many reference works also use the term: Spiritism to mean the same thing as "spiritualism" but Spiritism is more accurately used to mean Kardecist spiritism. Central to adherents' faith is a belief that spirits of the dead communicate with the living usually through a medium.
* Modern Spiritualism (religious movement): "Modern Spiritualism", or Modern American Spiritualism" Is used to refer to an Anglo-American religious movement having its golden age between the 1840s and 1920s but which continues on to this day.
* Christian Spiritualism: Spiritualism has been related to the practises of early Christianity and has developed into an additional form of Christian Spiritualism, e.g. the still active First Spiritual Temple in the USA founded in 1883 and the Greater World Christian Spiritualist League (later to become the Greater World Christian Spiritualist Association) in the UK which was founded in 1931. Foremost in the movement towards Christian Spiritualism in the United Kingdom was one of the leading pioneers in the spiritualism movement, medium and Reverend William Stainton Moses. He was a member of the BNAS (British National Association of Spiritualists), vice- president of the Society for Psychic Research and launched the London Spiritualist Alliance which later became the College of Psychic Studies.
* Spiritualism in France Before 1848 Main article: Spiritism French spiritualism, better known as Spiritism; popular throughout France and Latin American countries.
* Spiritualist beliefs are found from time to time in the early literature of the French "magnetists": As early as 1787 M. Tardy de Montravel wrote that in the trance the soul of the "somnambule" became freed from its body and was able to intercourse with other spirits. Dr G.P. Billot, and J. P. F. Deleuze and recorded discussing and documenting seances from the 1820s. Of the early French Spiritualist, Alphonse Cahagnet, publisher of spirit messages such as "Arcanes de la vie future devoiles" (1848), is one of its foremost cases. Familiar with the teachings of Swedenborg, and interest evoked by contemporary German clairvoyants, in Paris of his day Cahagnet stood almost alone belonging to no school. For the advent of Modern Spiritualism in America, Cahagnet would have found few readers but his documentation of his work with the medium Adele Maginot were at once amongst the most remarkable and the best-attested documents on which the early case for Spiritualism depended.
* Native American spiritualism: Representations of Native Americans images played a significant role in nineteenth-century spiritualism although in reality they are their tradition have suffer considerably under the influences of competing Christian churches. Since 1970, there has also been a rapid increase in the number of individuals purporting to sell native American spiritualism. A growth industry within the United States known as 'American Indian Spiritualism', the buiness began with a number of literary hoaxes undertaken by such non-Indians Carlos Castaneda and Jamake Highwater. Several Native Americans have also sought to exploit it writing distortions of indigenous spiritual practises and knowledge for consumption in the mass market. This situation has been long and bitterly attacked by legitimate Indian scholars and by activists such as the American Indian Movement, Survival of American Indians and the late Gerald Wilkenson, head of the National Indian Youth Council.
* Spiritualism in the Carribean: Has taken different roads of expression based on its contact with other religious systems. In urban areas, for example, Spiritualists were highly literate and more apt to indulge the concepts of foreign authors. In the rural areas, however, illiteracy was widespread and practitioners held a diverse array of beliefs and practices. In Cuba, for instance, two fundamental variants of espiritism exist: * La Mesa Blanca Spiritualism is form of practice is highly colonialized, meaning the European influence is quite evident. Catholicism, Native and African meld together into a syncretic belief system. This variant is designated by the use of La Mesa Blanca or "White Table". * Egungun Spiritualism is form of spiritism that has strong Kongo-Bantu roots. Elements from Lucumi/Regla de Ocha are evident. This type of practice, designated by the use of chants and dancing (performed by the mediums) in a line or chain to the beat of songs, hymns and invocations that ultimately lead to a state of trance or possession by the Spirit, is seen in rural areas and in the province of Santiago. La Mesa Blanca Spiritualism is the type of Espiritismo that made its way to US. The old line Eggungun form of service has not made much headway on the mainland. Séances, in Latino cultures, are called misas. Santeria, more properly called La Regla Lucumi (as the Yoruba were called in Cuba) is famous for its "magic" based on a knowledge of spirits and how to interact with them.
* A Heroic Couplet: Is a Renaissance church for English poetry, commonly used for epic and narrative poetry; it refers to poems constructed from a sequence of rhyming pairs of iambic pentameter lines. The rhyme is always masculine. Use of the heroic couplet was first pioneered by Chaucer in the Canterbury Tales. Chaucer is also widely credited with first extensive use of iambic pentameter. A frequently-cited example illustrating the use of heroic couplets is this passage from Cooper's Hill by John Denham, part of his description of the Thames:
* The term "Heroic Couplet": Is sometimes reserved for couplets that are largely closed and self-contained, as opposed to the enjambed couplets of poets like John Donne. The greatest masters of the heroic couplet in English, thus defined, are generally considered to be John Dryden and Alexander Pope. Major poems in the closed couplet, apart from the works of Dryden and Pope, are Samuel Johnson's The Vanity of Human Wishes, Oliver Goldsmith's The Deserted Village, and John Keats's Lamia. The form was immensely popular in the 18th century. The looser type of couplet, with occasional enjambment, was one of the standard verse forms in medieval narrative poetry, largely because of the influence of the Canterbury Tales.
* English heroic couplets, especially in Dryden and his followers:Are sometimes varied by the use of the occasional alexandrine, or hexameter line, and triplet. Often these two variations are used together to heighten a climax. The breaking of the regular pattern of rhyming pentameter pairs brings about a sense of poetic closure. Here are three examples from Book IV of Dryden's translation of the Aeneid.
* Triplet: A hero, in Greek mythology and folklore, was originally a demi-god, the offspring of a mortal and a deity, their cult being one of the most distinctive features of ancient Greek religion. Later, hero (male) and heroine (female) came to refer to characters that, in the face of danger and adversity or from a position of weakness, display courage and the will for self-sacrifice, that is, heroism, for some greater good, originally of martial courage or excellence but extended to more general moral excellence.
* The literal meaning of the word: Is "protector", "defender" or "guardian" and etymologically it is thought to be cognate with the name of the goddess Hera, the guardian of marriage; the postulated original forms of these words being * respectively. It is also thought to be a cognate of the Latin verb servo (original meaning: to preserve whole) and of the Avestan verb haurvaiti (to keep vigil over), although the original Proto-Indoeuropean root is unclear.
* Stories of heroism may serve as moral examples: In classical antiquity, hero cults, veneration of deified heroes such as Heracles, Perseus, or Achilles, played an important role in Ancient Greek religion. Later emperors employed hero worship for their own apotheosis, that is, cult of personality.
* Classical hero cults: Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Hero cults could be of the utmost political importance. When Cleisthenes divided the Athenians into new demes for voting, he consulted Delphi about what heroes he should name each division after. According to Herodotus, the Spartans attributed their conquest of Arcadia to their theft of the bones of Orestes from the Arcadian town of Tegea.
* Heroes in myth often had close but conflicted relationships with the gods: Thus Heracles's name means "the glory of Hera", even though he was tormented all his life by the queen of the gods. This was even more true in their cult appearances. Perhaps the most striking example is the Athenian king Erechtheus, whom Poseidon killed for choosing Athena over him as the city's patron god. When the Athenians worshiped Erechtheus on the Acropolis, they invoked him as Poseidon Erechtheus. In the Hellenistic Greek East, dynastic leaders such as the Ptolemies or Seleucids were also proclaimed heroes. This was an influence on the later, Roman apotheosis of their emperors.
* The classic hero often came with what Lord Raglan: (a descendant of the FitzRoy Somerset, Lord Raglan) termed a "potted biography" made up of some two dozen common traditions that ignored the line between historical fact and mythology. For example, the circumstances of the hero's conception are unusual; an attempt is made by a powerful male at his birth to kill him; he is spirited away; reared by foster-parents in a far country. Routinely the hero meets a mysterious death, often at the top of a hill; his body is not buried; he leaves no successors; he has one or more holy sepulchres.
* Most European indigenous religions feature heroes in some form. The validity of the "hero" in historical studies. Further information: Philosophy of history and Great man theory.
* Philosopher Hegel gave a central role to the "hero":Personalized by Napoleon, as the incarnation of a particular culture's Volksgeist, and thus of the general Zeitgeist. Thomas Carlyle's 1841 On Heroes and Hero Worship and the Heroic in History also accorded a key function to heroes and great men in history. Carlyle centered history on the biography of a few central individuals such as Oliver Cromwell or Frederick the Great. His heroes were political and military figures, the founders or topplers of states. His history of great men, of geniuses good and evil, sought to organize change in the advent of greatness. Explicit defenses of Carlyle's position were rare in the second part of the 20th century. Most philosophers of history contend that the motive forces in history can best be described only with a wider lens than the one he used for his portraits. For example, Karl Marx argued that history was determined by the massive social forces at play in "class struggles", not by the individuals by whom these forces are played out. After Marx, Herbert Spencer wrote at the end of the 19th century: "You must admit that the genesis of the great man depends on the long series of complex influences which has produced the race in which he appears, and the social state into which that race has slowly grown. Before he can remake his society, his society must make him."
* Thus, as Foucault pointed out in his analysis of the historical and political discourse: History was mainly the science of the sovereign, until its reversion by the "historical and political popular discourse". The Annales School, led by Lucien Febvre, Marc Bloch and Fernand Braudel would contest the exaggeration of the role of individual subjects in history. Indeed, Braudel distinguished various time-scales, one accorded to the life of an individual, another accorded to the life of a few human generations, and the last one to civilizations, by which geography, economics and demography play a role considerably more decisive than that of individual subjects. Foucault's conception of an "archeology" or Althusser's work were attempts at linking together these various heterogeneous layers composing history.
* Heroic myth The four heroes from the Chinese classic Journey to the West: The concept of a story archetype of the standard "hero's quest" or monomyth pervasive across all cultures is somewhat controversial. Expounded mainly by Joseph Campbell, it illustrates several uniting themes of hero stories that despite vastly different peoples and beliefs hold similar ideas of what a hero represents. Some argue that while there may be many stories that fit the monomyth, the belief in such a truly ubiquitous form may be due in part simply to neglecting those that do not and/or do.
* In medicine: Heroic refers to a treatment or course of therapy which possesses a high risk of causing further damage to a patient's health, but is undertaken as a last resort with the understanding that any lesser treatment will surely result in failure. Heroic measures are often taken in cases of grave injury or illness, as a last-ditch attempt to save life, limb, or eyesight. Examples include emergency trauma surgery conducted outside the operating room (such as "on-scene" surgical amputation, cricothyroidotomy, or thoracotomy), or administration of medication (such as certain antibiotics and chemotherapy drugs) at dosage levels high enough to potentially cause serious or fatal side effects. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation is a particularly well-known heroic measure; vigorous chest compressions often result in fracturing one or more of the patient's ribs, but since the alternative is certain death, the technique is accepted as necessary.
* Folk and fairy tales: Vladimir Propp, in his analysis of the Russian fairy tale, concluded that a fairy tale had only eight dramatis personae, of which one was the hero, and his analysis has been widely applied to non-Russian tales. The actions fell into a hero's sphere included.
1. departure on the quest 2. reacting to the test of the donor 3. marrying the princess
* He distinguished between seekers and victim-heroes: A villain could initiate the issue by kidnapping the hero or driving him out; these were victim heroes. On the other hand, the villain could rob the hero, or kidnap someone close to him, or, without the villain's intervention, the hero could realize that he lacked something and set out to find it; these heroes are seekers. Victims may appear in tales with seeker heroes, but the tale does not follow them both.
* Operatic hero: In opera and musical theatre, the hero/ heroine is often played by a tenor/soprano (more vulnerable characters are played by lyric voices while stronger characters are portrayed by spinto or dramatic voices.)
* The modern fictional hero: "Hero" or "heroine" is sometimes used to simply describe the protagonist of a story, or the love interest, a usage which can conflict with the more-than-human expectations of heroism. William Makepeace Thackeray gave Vanity Fair the subtitle A Novel without a Hero. The larger-than-life hero is a more common feature of fantasy (particularly sword and sorcery and epic fantasy) than more realist works. In modern movies, the hero is often simply an ordinary person in extraordinary circumstances, who, despite the odds being stacked against him or her, typically prevails in the end. In some movies (especially action movies), the hero may exhibit characteristics such as superhuman strength and endurance that sometimes makes him nearly invincible. Often a hero in these situations has a foil, the villain, typically a charismatic evildoer who represents, leads, or himself embodies the struggle the hero is up against. Post-modern fictional works have fomented the increased popularity of the anti-hero, who does not follow common conceptions of heroism.
* Hero-as-self: It has been suggested in an article by Roma Chatterji that the hero or more generally protagonist is first and foremost a symbolic representation of the person who is experiencing the story while reading, listening or watching; thus the relevance of the hero to the individual relies a great deal on how much similarity there is between the two. The idea of "identifying" with the hero takes on a very real meaning, in that the hero/protagonist becomes our only key to becoming part of the story rather than remaining merely an observer. If the hero is one with which the observer can't identify very well, the story can seem inaccessible, distant or even insincere. Conversely, insomuch as the reader or viewer relates to and is therefore capable of becoming the hero, they can feel pangs of remorse at the hero's defeats, and relish in his or her triumphs. The most compelling reason for the hero-as-self interpretation of stories and myths is the human inability to view the world from any perspective but a personal one. The almost universal notion of the hero or protagonist and its resulting hero identification allows us to experience stories in the only way we know how: as ourselves. One potential drawback of the necessity of hero identification means that a hero is often more a combination of symbols than a representation of an actual person. In order to appeal to a wide range of individuals, the author often relegates the hero to a "type" of person which everyone already is or wishes themselves to be: a "good" person; a "brave" person; a "self-sacrificing" person. The most problematic result of this sort of design is the creation of a character so universal that we can all identify with somewhat, but none can identify with completely. In regard to the observer's personal interaction with the story, it can give the feeling of being "mostly involved," but never entirely.
* Many physical phenomena can occur: When a charged particle is incident upon a solid target, e.g., elastic scattering, inelastic energy-loss processes, secondary-electron emission, electromagnetic radiation, nuclear reactions,etc. All of these processes have cross sections which depend on the impact parameters involved in collisions with individual target atoms. If the target material is homogeneous and isotropic, the impact-parameter distribution is independent of the orientation of the momentum of the particle and interaction processes are also orientation-independent. When the target material is monocrystalline, the yields of physical processes are found to be very strongly dependent on the relative orientations of the momentum of the particle and the direction of crystalline axes or planes. This effect is commonly called the "channeling" effect. It is obviously related to other orientation-dependent effects, such as particle diffraction, and these relationships will be discussed in detail later. In popular culture the word psychic pronounced from the Greek psychikos of the soul, mental refers to the ability to perceive things hidden from the senses through means of extra-sensory perception. The term also refers to theatrical performers who use techniques such as prestidigitation and cold reading to produce the appearance of having such abilities. Parapsychologists attempt to study what some believe are psychic phenomena using a variety of methods such as random number generators to test for psychokinesis or the Ganzfeld experiment to test for extra-sensory perception.
* May deal with chakra: As a model for their internal and external experience, and when talking about 'energy centers', may be talking about subtle forces which connect to the physical, emotional, mental and spiritual aspects of a person.
* Wadjet: (Egyptian also spelt Wadjit or Wedjet which means, goddess, and in Greek, Udjo, Uto, Edjo, and Buto among other names), was originally the ancient local goddess of the city of Dep which became part of the city that the Egyptians named Per Wadjet (House of Wadjet) and the Greeks called Buto, a city that was an important site in the Predynastic era of Ancient Egypt and the cultural developments of ten thousand years from the Paleolithic to 3100 B.C. She came to be the patron and protector of Lower Egypt and upon unification with Upper Egypt, the joint protector and patron of all of Egypt with the goddess of Upper Egypt. As the patron goddess, she was associated with the land and depicted as a snake headed woman or a snake usually an Egyptian cobra, poisonous snakes which were common in the region sometimes she was depicted as a woman with two snake heads and at other times, a snake with a woman's head. Her oracle was located in the renowned temple in Per Wadjet that was dedicated to her worship and gave the city its name. This oracle may have been the source for the oracular tradition that spread to Greece from Egypt. The Going Forth of Wadjet was celebrated on December 25 with chants and songs. An annual festival held in the city celebrated Wadjet on April 21. Other important dates for special worship of her were, June 21, the Summer Solstice, and March 14. She also was assigned the fifth hour of the fifth day of the moon. Wadjet was closely associated in the Egyptian pantheon with Bast the fierce goddess depicted as a lioness warrior and protector, as the sun goddess whose eye later became the eye of Horus, the eye of Ra, and the Lady of Flame. Per Wadjet also contained a sanctuary of Horus and much later, Wadjet became associated with Isis.
* Darana (Darshan): Is a Sanskrit term meaning "sight" (in the sense of an instance of seeing or beholding; from a root d?? "to see"), vision, apparition, or glimpse. It is most commonly used for "visions of the divine," i.e. of a god or a very holy person or artifact. One could "receive darshana" of the deity in the temple, or from a great saintly person, such as a great guru. In the sense "to see with reverence and devotion," the term translates to epiphany, and could refer either to a vision of the divine or to being in the presence of a highly revered person. In this sense it may assume a meaning closer to audience. "By doing darshan properly a devotee develops affection for God, and God develops affection for that devotee."
* Shamanism: refers to a range of traditional beliefs and practices concerned with communication with the spirit world. There are many variations of shamanism throughout the world, though there are some beliefs that are shared by all forms of shamanism:
* The spirits can play important roles in human lives. * The shaman can control and/or cooperate with the spirits for the community's benefit. * The spirits can be either good or bad. * Shamans engage various processes and techniques to incite trance; such as: singing, dancing, taking entheogens, meditating and drumming. * Animals play an important role, acting as omens and message-bearers, as well as representations of animal spirit guides. * The shaman's spirit leaves the body and enters into the supernatural world during certain tasks. * The shamans can treat illnesses or sickness. * Shamans are healers, gurus and magicians.
* Shamans: Have the ability to diagnose and cure human suffering and, in some societies, the ability to cause suffering. This is believed to be accomplished by traversing the axis mundi and forming a special relationship with, or gaining control over, spirits. Shamans have been credited with the ability to control the weather, divination, the interpretation of dreams, astral projection, and traveling to upper and lower worlds. Shamanistic traditions have existed throughout the world since prehistoric times. Some anthropologists and religious scholars define a shaman as an intermediary between the natural and spiritual world, who travels between worlds in a state of trance. Once in the spirit world, the shaman would commune with the spirits for assistance in healing, hunting or weather management. Ripinsky-Naxon describes shamans as, “People who have a strong interest in their surrounding environment and the society of which they are a part.” Other anthropologists critique the term "shamanism", arguing that it is a culturally specific word and institution and that by expanding it to fit any healer from any traditional society it produces a false unity between these cultures and creates a false idea of an initial human religion predating all others. However, some others say that these anthropologists simply fail to recognize the commonalities between otherwise diverse traditional societies. Shamanism is based on the premise that the visible world is pervaded by invisible forces or spirits that affect the lives of the living. In contrast to animism and animatism, which any and usually all members of a society practice, shamanism requires specialized knowledge or abilities.
* It could be said that shamans are the experts employed by animists and animist communities: Shamans are often organized into full-time ritual or spiritual associations, like priests. In Indian culture as well there are those who are called tantrics and are said to have the power to control spirits and force them to do their bidding. People often visit them for many reasons but most often it is to ensure the spirit's aid in their work or to curse someone who they feel is an enemy of theirs or opposes them. At many Inuit and other Native American groups, the vision quest is a turning point in life taken before puberty to find oneself and the intended spiritual and life direction. When an older child is ready, he or she will go on a personal, spiritual quest alone in the wilderness. This usually lasts for a number of days while the child is tuned into the spirit world. Usually, a Guardian animal will come in a vision or dream, and the child's life direction will appear at some point. Once the child has grown into his or her self, she will return to the tribe and pursue that direction in life. If a child has not visionquested by puberty, the child is thought to be lazy. After a vision quest, the child may apprentice an adult in the tribe of the shown direction (Medicine Man, boatmaker, etc).
* The vision quest: May be a part of shamanism, more exactly, the learning and initiation process of the apprentice for achieving the ability for shamanizing, mostly under the guidance of an older shaman. The vision quest may be said to make the initiated establish contact with a spirit or force. Psychologically, it may have effected hallucinations. See a complex emic and etic approach to shamanism among Eskimo peoples in. The technique may be similar to sensory deprivation methods. It may include long walking on uninhabited, monotonous areas (tundra, inland, mountain); fasting; sleep deprivation; being closed in a small room (e.g. igloo).
* An omen (also called portent or presage) Is a phenomenon that is believed to foretell the future, often signifying the advent of change.
* Interpretation of omens and prophetic signs is a form of divination: Omens may be considered "good" or "bad", but the term is more often used in a foreboding sense, as with the word "ominous".
* Ancient Roman religion employed two distinct types of professional omen readers: Augurs interpreted the flights of birds, while haruspices employed animal sacrifice to obtain the entrails necessary for divination.
* Astrology Eclipse cycle, Metonic cycle, Saros cycle, Comets: In the field of astrology, solar and lunar eclipses (along with the appearance of comets and to some extent the Full Moon) have often been considered omens of notable births, deaths, or other significant events throughout history in many societies. For example the Magi in the Gospel of Matthew predict the birth of Jesus after seeing the Star of Bethlehem.
* Halley's Comet's appearance in 1066 was recorded on the Bayeux Tapestry: ISTI MIRANT STELLA literally means "These ones are looking at the star". National Geographic translated it in a 1966 article about the tapestry as "These men wonder at the star."
* Omens may be considered either good or bad depending on their interpretation: The same sign may be interpreted differently by different people or different cultures. For example, a superstition in the United States indicates that a black cat is an omen of bad luck. Comets also have been considered to be both good and bad omens. The best-known example is probably Halley's Comet, which was a "bad omen" for King Harold II of England but a "good omen" for William the Conqueror.
* Omens in Indian Astrology Omenology: Is called Nimmita or shukuna shastra in Vedic Astrology. Omen seen or heard or even visualized at the initiation of an activity, certainly foretells fate / success of the activity. Omens portents (Shakun Utpaats) is a useful branch of India astrology, which includes interpretation of dreams, status of living non-living items in the environment, sounds produced by human animals, portents, mode of pacification of adverse omens portents. It acts as a guide in horary astrology, to clinch the issue when there is a stalemate. Coming events cast their shadows before it is the ingenuity skill of the interpreters to decode omens correctly for their profitable usage in their daily life.
* Treatises on omen (Shakun) Have commended that omen has the final say in Election. Omens seen at the start of an action does foretell its success. In case adverse omen is seen or heard or even visualized; the activity should not be initiated. Omen is a wonderful knowledge which acts like a medicine. Vasant Raj in his treatise titled ‘Vasantraj Shakunan’ - an authoritative book on the subject - has opined that when ephemeral elements (Tithi, Nakshatra, election ascendant etc.) are fully auspicious efficacious (Uttam Gunyukta), fortified ascendant strong Moon is present, but there prevails an inauspicious omen (Shakun) then, nothing materializes regarding election. Some opine that an election clinched only on the basis of an omen, does not have lasting effects. Some has opined that in the matter like making a theft or the like activities, omen is to considered. The treatises on Hindu /Vedic electional astrology have dilated omens in details in travel elections. On seeing an inauspicious omen, the person should return (not undertake journey), recite Pranayam (a specific Mantra’s recitation) eleven times then start the journey. If inauspicious omen is again is seen, then he should return recite Pranayam 16 times start the journey. And if inauspicious omen is again observed at the third start of the journey, the journey should be abandoned. Best of the sages agree with this, from this one may infer the importance given to omens in elections. One must develop faculty of interpretation of omen seen or heard or even visualized at the initiation of an activity, use it profitably. In case of adverse omen of high potency, execution of an election should be withheld / postponed.
* Interpretation of omens: Exponents have laid down rules to interpret omens, examine potency of an omen timing of event based on omens. Potency of an omen is examined based on its position with respect from the observer (front / back / left / right / higher lower level), position of omen in geographical direction (East-South-West-North), time of its observation, motion / speed of the omen, sound produced / heard, expression, place where it is observed. Here are some items persons signifying auspicious / favourable inauspicious / unfavourable omens. The list in no means is exhaustive, but provides adequate information. Omens differ from place to place, country to country religion to religion.
* Items signifying omens: Auspicious items: Following fifty items are auspicious items seeing them is auspicious at all the times. Curd, milk, rice, pot filled with water, ripe food, mustard, sandal, mirror, fresh green grass (Durva- a kind of grass), conch shell, meat, fish, soil (wet), a bright yellow pigment prepared from urine of cow (Gorochan), cow dung, cow, honey, idol of god, Veena (a musical instrument), fruit, seat of king, flower, black items used to decorate eyes (Anjan / Kajal / Surma), ornaments, hand weapon, beetle leaves, conveyance, palanquin (Palki - man carried conveyance), a covered pot or box to keep medicine or wine (Sharavsanput) , flag, parasol (Chhatra), hand fan, clothes, lotus, Kakash (pot), glowing fire, elephant, goats, drums, device to control elephant (Ankush), tail of animal used to whisk flies (Chaamar), gems, gold, silver, copper, herd of tied animals or an animal whose legs are tied, medicine, drink, tree with fruit, fresh vegetables. Inauspicious items: A sparkle without smoke, ash, fuel-wood-cow dug cake (Upla), rope, mud, device used to make powder by hammering action (Tilkuta), cotton, husk (Tush), bones, opened hair (untied hair), black item, iron, bark of a tree (Valkal), skin of a tree, black sesame (Til) or black pulse, stone, stool, snake, medicine, oil, raw sugar, boneless meat, empty or broken utensil, salt, dry grass, butter milk, wood, iron chain, rain wind.
* Omens related to persons: Auspicious persons: Sight of the following persons is auspicious: a king, happy Brahmin, prostitute, virgin girl, gentle person, well dressed person sitting on a horse or ox, a fair complexion lady in white dress wearing white garland on her fore head; a pious Brahmin wearing white clothes-sandal flowers-having properly fed having received donations, reciting Mantras; a lady with a man or either of them having fruit in his or her hands- seen in front; a child saying something on his own; a beautiful person, person dressed in white clothes-wearing white garland, speaking sweetly if is found coming from front or right side during journey or at the time of entrance- it is an auspicious omen. Inauspicious persons: A person doing vomiting; hair-less or clean shaved head; having any body part severed; naked; lowest cast; body part oiled; ill; dirty; angry, drunkard; having long hair (Jatadhari); quarrelsome; having black complexion; opened hair; sitting on a camel / ass / buffalo; loudly weeping; eunuch; ascetic; a lady wearing black clothes black garland on her fore-head; a lady having menstruation; pregnant woman.
* In a linear conception of time:The future is the portion of the time line that has yet to occur, i.e. the place in space-time where lie all events that will occur. In this sense the future is opposed to the past (the set of moments and events that have already occurred) and the present (the set of events that are occurring now).
* The desire to know: The future has always had a special place in philosophy and, in general, in the human mind. The future holds such a place because human beings want a forecast of events that will occur. The evolution of the human brain is in great part an evolution in cognitive abilities necessary to forecast the future, i.e. abstract imagination, logic and induction. Imagination permits us to “see” (i.e. predict) a plausible model of a given situation without observing it, therefore, allowing one to assess risks. Logical reasoning allows one to predict consequences of actions and situations and therefore gives useful information about future events. Induction permits the association of a cause with consequences, a fundamental notion for every forecast of the future. Despite these cognitive instruments for the comprehension of future, the stochastic nature of many natural and social processes has made complete forecasting the future impossible. Despite this, it has been a long-sought aim of many people and cultures throughout the ages. The Future also forms a prominent subject for religion. Religions often offer prophecies about life after death and also about the end of the world. Figures claiming to see into the future, such as prophets and diviners, have enjoyed great consideration and even social importance in many past and present communities. Whole pseudo-sciences, such as astrology and cheiromancy, were constructed with the aim of forecasting the future. Much of physical science too can be read as an attempt to make quantitative and objective predictions about events.
* Mania: Is a severe medical condition characterized by extremely elevated mood, energy, and unusual thought patterns. There are several possible causes for mania, but it is most often associated with bipolar disorder, where episodes of mania may cyclically alternate with episodes of clinical depression. These cycles may relate to diurnal rhythms and environmental stressors. Mania varies in intensity, from mild mania (known as hypomania) to full-blown mania with psychotic features (hallucinations and delusions). Manic patients may need to be hospitalized to protect themselves and others. Mania and hypomania have also been associated with creativity and artistic talent.
* A Querent ("one who queries") Is a person who asks a question or questions of an Oracle. This Oracle may simply be a divinatory technique, such as the I Ching, that is manipulated by the querent themselves without recourse to any other human agency. Alternatively it may involve another person, someone perhaps seen as a "fortune teller" particularly a Tarot practitioner or astrologer from whom advice is sought. Querent is also the name of a music project by Providence, RI based artists. The kinds of question asked by a querent vary widely according to their needs, their understanding of divination or oracular principles and the kind of oracle queried. Some querents are happy just to be told anything, trusting that what they are told will somehow be what is most important to them. Others ask questions in the nature of general forecasting such as, "What will happen to me in five years time?", "Will I be rich?" and "What kind of person will I marry?" Still others seek specific advice, although opinion is divided amongst practicioners of oracular techniques as to what constitutes a 'good' question: some say that questions of the form "What would be likely to happen if I followed course of action X?" is potentially more useful to a querent than "Should I follow course of action X?"
* The mindset of a Querent differs from person to person: Some approach the reading with skepticism and, if they are dealing with a human oracle, are unwilling to offer them any personal information. Conversely, some approach with great respect, as if they pre-acknowledge that the oracle is the agent for some kind of higher, even divine, power. A third group will typically talk freely with a human oracle and accept offers of advice with a healthy skepticism but an open mind. These querent attitudes can stem from how they believe the particular oracular system they are consulting works (or doesn't work - in the case of extreme skepticism). Favourite theories that inform these attitudes divide generally into three classes:
* The belief that the reading is influenced by synchronicity, or some other system of coincident cause and effect, and can therefore show both personal and more general patterns. * The belief that their own subconscious or unconscious mind is somehow influencing the reading in order to pass them advice. These people often point to dream interpretation as a parallel resource. * The belief that some external agency will use the reading to advise them. These agencies can include deities, spiritual guardians and ancestral spirits. * Information about Querent
* For prophecy in the context of revealed religions, see Prophet. "Fortune teller" redirects here. For other uses, see Fortune teller. Fortune-telling is the practice of predicting the future, usually of an individual, through mystical or supernatural means and often for commercial gain. It often conflates with the religious practice known as divination.
* European and Euro-American fortune telling: Gypsies fortune-telling. Facsimile of a woodcut in the "Cosmographie Universelle" of Sebastian Münster: in folio, Basel, 1552 In Europe, the fortune-telling has not been well-respected for the past several centuries. There have been religious proscriptions against it, as well as civil laws passed that forbid the practice. For these reasons, many mainstream urban Europeans and Americans are unaware of how popular fortune-telling remains with the public and are surprised when they learn of a celebrity or politician who consults a fortune-teller for the purpose of making decisions.
* Common methods used for fortune telling: In Europe and the Americas include astromancy, horary astrology, pendulum reading, spirit board reading, tasseography (reading tea leaves in a cup), cartomancy (fortune telling with cards), tarot card reading, crystallomancy (reading of a crystal sphere), and cheiromancy (palmistry, reading of the palms). The latter three have traditional associations in the popular mind with the Roma and Sinti people (often called "gypsies"). Another form of fortune-telling, sometimes called "reading" or "spiritual consultation" does not rely on the use of specific devices or methods, but consists of the practitioner transmitting to the client advice and predictions which are said to have come from spirits or in visions. This form of fortune-telling is particularly popular in the African-American community.
* Typical topics that Western fortune-tellers make predictions on include: future romantic, financial, and childbearing prospects. They may also be called upon to aid in decision-making regarding job opportunities, the outcome of illnesses, and plans for marriage or divorce. In addition to divining the future, many fortune-tellers will also give "character readings." These are short analyses of the character of a person and do not necessarily involve specific preditions about future events. Methods used in character analysis readings include numerology, graphology, palmistry (if the subject is present), and astrology. The subject of a character reading may be the client, who seeks self-knowledge, but it is quite common for the fortune-teller to perform a character reading on the client's prospective mate. In the latter case, when a third party is being assessed for marital compatibility with the client, an element of fore-telling does occur, as the practitioner explores the future of the relationship based on the characters of the two parties.
* Sociology: In contemporary Western culture, it appears that women consult fortune-tellers more than men: some indication of this comes from the profusion of advertisements for commercial fortune-telling services in magazines aimed at women, while such advertisements appear virtually unknown in magazines aimed specifically at men.
* It is quite common for young women to seek out fortune tellers as they embark on adulthood: and many women maintain decades-long relationships with their personal readers or fortune-tellers. Telephone consultations with psychics (charged to the caller's telephone account at very high rates) grew in popularity through the 1990s but they have not replaced - and may never replace - the traditional card readers, tea leaf readers, palmists, and spiritual readers who see their clients in small storefronts or occult shops.
* Asian fortune telling: Street fortune teller consults with client in Taichung, Taiwan.
* Superstition (Latin superstes, standing over) Is a belief or notion, not based on reason or knowledge, in or of the ominous significance of a particular thing, circumstance, occurrence, proceeding, or the like. The word superstition means something standing or happening above, or set above. The earliest English uses of the word in the modern era refer critically to Catholic practices such as censing, rosaries, holy water and other practices that Protestants believed went beyond or were set up above their own interpretation of the New Testament practices of Christianity. From there the uses of the term expanded to include non-Christian religious practices, and beliefs that seemed unfounded or primitive in the light of modern knowledge. Many extant superstitions arose before and during the time of the Black Plague that swept over Europe. During the time of a plague, Pope Gregory I the Great made a decree for people to say "God bless you" when somebody sneezed; this was said to prevent the spread of the disease.
* Superstition and folklore: In the academic discipline of folkloristics the term "superstition" is used to denote any general, culturally variable beliefs in a supernatural "reality". Depending on a given culture's belief set, its superstitions may relate to things that are not fully understood or known, such as cemeteries, animals, demons, a devil, deceased ancestors, the weather, ripping one's sock, gambling, sports, food, holidays, occupations, excessive scrupulosity, death, luck, and spirits. Urban legends are also sometimes classed as superstition, especially if the moral of the legend is to justify fears about socially alien people or conditions. In Western folklore, superstitions associated with bad luck include Friday the 13th and walking under a ladder. In India, there is a superstition that a pregnant woman should avoid going outside during an eclipse in order to prevent her baby being born with a facial birthmark. In Iran, birthmarks are called 'maah-gereftegi' which means eclipse. In Korea, there is a superstition that leaving a fan on in a closed room will suffocate the occupants.
* Superstition and religion: In keeping with the Latin etymology of the word, religious believers have often seen other religions as superstition. Likewise, atheists, agnostics, deists, and skeptics regard religious belief as superstition. Religious practices are most likely to be labeled "superstitious" by outsiders when they include belief in extraordinary events (miracles), an afterlife, supernatural interventions, apparitions or the efficacy of prayer, charms, incantations, the meaningfulness of omens, and prognostications. Greek and Roman pagans, who modeled their relations with the gods on political and social terms scorned the man who constantly trembled with fear at the thought of the gods, as a slave feared a cruel and capricious master. "Such fear of the gods (deisidaimonia) was what the Romans meant by 'superstition' (Veyne 1987, p 211). For Christians just such fears might be worn proudly as a name: Desdemona. The Roman Catholic Church considers superstition to be sinful in the sense that it denotes a lack of trust in the divine providence of God and, as such, is a violation of the first of the Ten Commandments. The Catechism of the Catholic Church states superstition "in some sense represents a perverse excess of religion". The Catechism clearly dispels commonly held preconceptions or misunderstandings about Catholic doctrine relating to superstitious practices:
* Superstition is a deviation of religious feeling: and of the practices this feeling imposes. It can even affect the worship we offer the true God, e.g., when one attributes an importance in some way magical to certain practices otherwise lawful or necessary. To attribute the efficacy of prayers or of sacramental signs to their mere external performance, apart from the interior dispositions that they demand is to fall into superstition. Cf. Matthew 23:16-22
* Superstition and magic: Superstitions differ from magic spells in that the former are generally passive if/then constructs while the latter contain formulae, recipes, petitions, prayers, and love songs for effecting future outcomes by means of symbolic, and perhaps non-causal activities. People who otherwise accept scientific de-mystification of the supernatural world and do not consider themselves to be occultists or practitioners of magic, still may consider that it is "better to be safe than sorry" and observe some or many of the superstitions.
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